Were the Anti-Federalists Correct Was the 1787 Constitution a Betrayal Essay

Were the Anti-Federalists Correct Was the 1787 Constitution a Betrayal of the American Revolution - Essay Example The push and the predicted effects of the constitution however created opposing forces to the ratification of the U.S. constitution. The federalists strongly supported the constitution and its formation of the central government because the formerly relied confederation articles were ineffective, and a strong national government would be able to control uncooperative states and excess powers of foreign policies that affected the U.S., and protect the right of its people who had delegated their powers back to the government. The anti-federalists had raised several objections over the approval of the constitution by the states and their population with respect to the envisioned ramifications, arguing that it would burden Americans in their future. Earlier on, the anti-federalist warned that State power would be threatened by a strong national government, where the centre of gravity would shift to the national government (â€Å"Antifederalists† gps.edu). Although power sharing be tween the national and States’ government was supported by both, the risk of giving too much power as supremacy to the national government at the expense of the States would be high. Considering the challenges facing the new republic, federal opposition â€Å"insisted that the freedom won by the Revolution would be best preserved not by expanding the power of the national government but by tightly circumscribing its power† (Mooney 51).... The anti-federalists objections pushed federalists to include a bill of rights to guarantee civil liberties to the people. The aim of the opposition on the bill of rights was to limit the powers of the central government to prevent intrusion into the state powers. To both of the parties’ achievements, the bill was later adopted and the few states which were reluctant to ratify the constitution became convinced. First of all, the 10th amendment of the constitution only clarified the existing enumeration powers of the federal government, but refused to adjust its powers to make a change. As a result, the States felt obliged to support the constitution, due to the assurance of the tenth amendment, which confirmed that powers not delegated to the central government would reside with the respective States (Mooney 58). In other words, it was a meander to achieve support of the states by limiting the federal government the right to interfere with individuals and not the state. Nothin g was new because individuals were already protected by the bill of rights in the respective States constitutions; the only change was its further inclusion in the national constitution, yet the federal powers over war, taxes, commerce, and implied powers were not restricted by the amendment (Dry 5). Today everyone realizes and sympathizes with the anti- federalist opposition for their fear of constitution to leave out the bill of rights that turned out to be very essential. Even with the 1st enactment of the bill of rights, suppressive scenarios like the approval of the Alien and Sedition Acts that threatened foreigners’ liberty, and seriously limited freedom of speech and especially of the press affirmed anti-federalist argument. The inclusion of the bill of

Kant's Fundamental Principles of the Metaphysic of Morals Essay

Kant's Fundamental Principles of the Metaphysic of Morals - Essay Example attributes concerning this proposition, he specifically delineates immaturity as the initial stage at which an unenlightened man is to be found then only by finding courage with reason can an individual attain to the state of competence and abolish ignorance. Kant argues that â€Å"our will is good when it is determined by reason† and the courage serves as a fuel toward the execution of reason. On this ground, humans are summoned to acknowledge responsibility by way of paying courage worth on initiating to acquire the pertinent means to discern oneself and create appropriate ethical response to the world. The power of reason is crucial and Kant promotes it for the sake of enlightenment much as he adheres to the power of reason for the purpose of obeying the dictates of universal law. Reflecting after this regard, I believe that the philosopher in his time desires to bring across resolution to the chaotic nature of man under the governance of reasoning so that a man discovers the potential advantage of being rational. For one to realize the value attached with duty, Kant likely conveys the requirement to appreciate reason. Moreover, he seems to try to make sense of reason in the light of distinguishing an action that comes from the pure intention to perform duty from an action that emerges out of self-interest or inclination. Here, Kant calls for the need to understand how reason manages to sustain enlightenment in human and in turn, the enlightened condition naturally opts for a deed with moral quality. A man whose well-being has reached such an extent of intellect or thought can be expected to act based on the so-called ‘maxim’ with the basic principle that â€Å"the moral action is to do one’s duty†. This I suppose is equivalent to claiming that a morally conscious person is one who has been refined in the process of enlightenment out of which proceeds the imperative of goodwill. Practically speaking, our experience of the world reveals that it is

Philosophy final Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Philosophy final - Essay Example Individualism is believed to be a factor which is being promoted in the society to maintain the balance in society. Adam Smith was a proponent of capitalism along with liberty as he believed in individualism in every individual. He believed that if everyone realizes his or her advantages in accordance to his needs then he would be able to balance the needs of the society too. Adam Smith is considered to be the first promoter of individualism in the society. Nowadays a similar change can be felt in the society when everyone is realizing his own individual advantages and disadvantages in accordance to his needs. Similarly Jeremy Bentham believed that a social policy could be a great way to promote individualism in which the benefits of every individual could be noted down without any moral judgment. By this he meant that every individual has a right to be happy in the way he likes and his happiness cannot be judged on moral grounds. Bentham proposes that a social policy must include clauses and ideas which are equally beneficial for all people living in a society without any indication of discrimination or bias on any grounds. His approach is more inclined towards democracy of thoughts, judgment and social order. Nowadays in the modern society similar events can be seen when people are not able to judge their happiness by being rich only. Even a poor old man can be happier than a rich man because of his realization of individualism. The equal opportunity rights, bills condemning discrimination and social policies for the minorities are all translating the idea of creating individualism in a democratic manner i.e. by creating self-regulating attitudes. People are motivated to think, judge and choose for themselves. They are given the autonomy to choose the career that best suits them, vote for the leader which they truly trust in, go for a decision which find the most appropriate and form

Compulsory education Essay Example for Free

Compulsory education Essay Everyone has their own opinions on beliefs about school. Many say school is the only way for children to go, and many are against it. John Holt wrote an inspiring story called School Is Bad for Children that has an outlook on all aspects of school and why its not for children. He elaborates on all points to argue the fact that children shouldnt have to make life harder by going to school. Holt indicates certain points, but ones that stick out are the compulsory attendance policy and how it affects the child. Also, why we shouldnt have grades and exams and lastly, teachers and their poor pedagogy. The compulsory school attendance protected the childrens right to school under the parents permission; unless the parents decide to exploit their labor. Holt states that the compulsory attendance policy commands children to go to school. If children are forced to go to school than there is a better chance they wont like going. But, if the child had the option to go to school whenever they want, there us a better chance of them going; this being because school is where children meet new friends and communicate with others. And children need communication to get through life, like any other average person. Pedagogy is the art of the education and how a teacher conducts their class. Holt believes that poor pedagogy is another reason why school is bad for children. The art and styling of a teacher determines what the child will get and take out of the class. Many students are visual learners and some are auditory. Also, students are categorized between passive learners and active learners. Passive learners do what they need to, to pass the class and dont take in any of the information that is being distributed to them. But, active learners enjoy their time in class and engage in the lesson of the day. Teachers need to take it upon themselves to make the class interesting and vibrant for all students. They always said two heads are better than one. Holt feels as if children work better in groups and collaborative work. It makes everything in their school experience and life a little easier. Letting them work together and help each other out, they can help each other fix their mistakes. He explains how children are often the best teachers of other children. Letting children judge their own work gives them a sense of how much they can handle. According to Holt, if a child is corrected too many times, he will shut down and not speak at all. Correcting a student over and over again begins to make them feel like being wrong, uncertain and confused is a crime. He feels that a child should learn on his or her own but with the help of other children his age. If the child is stuck and just can’t get the answer right and needs help then that is when we lend a helping hand. Helping a child too much can also lead to them depending on someone to give them the answer. They won’t know the right answer and they’ll wait for the teacher or the expert to give them right answer. Holt has given up ideas on why the right way isn’t always the right thing to do. He wants to correct the school curriculum. He shows that education back in the day is different than education now. Although students need education, we’re going about it all wrong. Children need to learn physically and mentally and not always with the help of an expert. Children need to work together to become more advance and progress.

Understanding the true meaning of rape and its effects

Understanding the true meaning of rape and its effects When people think of rape, they might think of a stranger jumping out of a dark shadowy place and sexually attacking someone. But the reality to all of this is, its not only strangers who rape. In fact, about half of all people who are raped know the person who attacked them. Females are most often raped, but males can also be raped. Most friendships, acquaintances, and date rape never lead to violence, of course. But, sadly, sometimes it does happen. When forced sex occurs between two people who already know each other, it is known as date rape or acquaintance rape. Even if the two people know each other well, and even if they were intimate or had sex before, no one has the right to force a sexual act another person against his or her will. Although it involves forced sex, rape is not about sex or passion. Rape has nothing to do with love. Rape is an act of aggression and violence. You may hear some people say that those who have been raped were somehow asking for it because of the clothes they wore or the way they acted. Thats wrong: The person who is raped is not to blame. Rape is always the fault of the rapist. And thats also the case when two people are dating or even in an intimate relationship. One person never owes the other person sex. If sex is forced against someones will, thats rape. Healthy relationships involve respect including respect for the feelings of others. Someone who really cares about you will respect your wishes and not force or pressure you to have sex. Date rape is defined as non-consensual sexual (vaginal, anal, oral) intercourse that is forced (by way of physical force or psychological coercion) on a person by someone that they know. Date rape is a criminal act that is perpetrated by a social acquaintance, a friend, or a dating or intimate partner of the victim. Date rape is a complex and difficult area of criminal law, given the nature of the relationship between the victim and the defendant. Most jurisdictions, however, make no legal distinction between date rape and rape that is committed by strangers. Alcohol has been used in years to commit rape because it is easy to access, and it is still the most widely used drug for committing sexual assault. The use of other date rape drugs to commit rape is becoming more common, however, because these drugs are easily combined with alcohol to enhance their effects. These date rape drugs are often referred to as club drugs because of their popularity in dance clubs and bars. Every state and the federal government treat the act of rape as a crime. Although there are slight variations in the terms used to define the act of rape among the different laws, there is one common element the victims lack of consent. The most common and lack of consent is stated when drugs and alcohol are used to commit a rape. In cases such as these the victim is incapable and is unable to fight off the attacker or is unable to say no, regardless of the victims state at the time of the attack it is still sufficient to meet the definition of rape. The type of rape that are mainly associated with drugs and alcohol is either acquaintance rape or date rape. Date rape alone has become a real problem in todays society. The issue was introduced to the public because of the high profile trails of Mike Tyson and William Kennedy Smith. More recently basketball star Kobe Bryant has also made headlines in a case related to date rape. In all of these cases the victim stated that they defendan ts, who they knew well forcibly, raped them. Many rape victims are in the late teens and early twenties. A recent study on the subject of date rape reported that women between the ages of sixteen and twenty-four experience rape at rates four times higher than the assault rate for all women. Another study conducted in 1988 by M.P.Koss showed that five percent of the women raped reported the incident, but what is more alarming is that forty-two percent of the victims later had sex with the perpetrator again. Alcohol and Drugs Alcohol is just one of many drugs used to commit a rape. Others substances include marijuana, cocaine, benzodiazepines, barbiturates, chloral hydrate, heroin, morphine and LSD. Three of the most commonly used drugs today is Rohyonol, Gamma Hydroxybutyrate (GHB), and Ketamine. These drugs were originally developed for specific medical reasons, but today they are used illegally in drug related sexual assaults, in cases where unsuspecting victims are incapacitated and left unable to resist sexual advances. In the last few years, drug related sexual assault has become a growing concern among health and community educators. There are a wide amount of drugs that has become known as date rape drugs or predatory drugs they are known by these names because they are used to incapacitate individuals for the purpose of committing a crime, often sexual assault. The fact remains that the use of recreational drugs to commit rape is not a new concept. Alcohol has been used for years to commit rape, because of its easy accessibility and today it is still the most widely used drug for committing sexual assault. However the use of other date rape drugs for committing rape is becoming more common, because these drugs are easily accessible, inexpensive, and have a rapid effectiveness on the victim. They can easily be combined with alcohol to enhance their effectiveness. These particular date rape drugs are often referred to as club drugs because of their popularity in dance clubs and bars (Kehner, 2004). Rohypnol is the trade name for flunitrazepam, it is a benzodiazepine similar to Valium but it is ten times more potent. It has many street names, such as roofies, roache, the forget-me pill, mind erasers and Mexican Valium. The pill was designed to be used as a sleeping pill in some countries, but it has never been approved for use in the United States. Rohypnol usually comes in the form of pills. After being slipped into someones drink, Rohypnol leaves no detected taste, color or order, and it will take effect after five to thirty minutes. The effects of this drug can be felt for many hours after being taken. Some of the effects that Rohypnol causes are blurry vision, drowsiness, confusion, dizziness and difficulty to move. Gamma Hydroxybutyrate (GHB) was designed for medical use; it is a popular drug in France and Italy it is used as an aid in childbirth because it relaxes the muscles. It has a great effect on sleep a very small amount produce relaxation, tranquility, and drowsiness. A high dose of this medication will induce sleep with five to ten minutes. However the sleep effects only last for three hours, but not everyone can be put to sleep by this drug. It is also used primarily to relieve withdrawal symptoms, cravings and anxiety among alcoholics. There have been reports of addiction and death related to Gamma Hydroxybutyrate (GHB), because of this in 1990 the Food and Drug Administration (FDA) banned over-the-counter sales of the drug. This made the drug illegal except under the strict guidelines and monitoring under a doctors care. The possession of Gamma Hydroxybutyrate (GHB) is a felony punishable by up to twenty years in prison. Gamma Hydroxybutyrate (GHB) is known on the street as liquidecstasy, liquid X, Georgia Home Boy, Cherry Meth, Blue Nitro, Water or Soap. Gamma Hydroxybutyrate (GHB) is a clear, orderless liquid that has a salty taste that can be masked by putting it into a flavored or mixed drink. The effects of the drug can be felt shortly after being taken, usually within fifteen minutes and can last for several hours. The drug reached its highest blood levels in twenty five to forty minutes. One gram of Gamma Hydroxybutyrate (GHB) powder can be dissolved in as little as one milliliter of water. There is no way to determine the concentration of Gamma Hydroxybutyrate (GHB) once it is in liquid form. Because of this even a small amount can result in temporarily unrousable sleep. When purchased at the club, Gamma Hydroxybutyrate (GHB) is generally sold for a few dollars per dose, but when it is purchased in large quantities it is available for ten to fifty dollars per 100 grams. Some of the effects in clude drowsiness, deep unresponsive sleep, nausea, and loss of consciousness. Katamrine is known on the street as Special K, Vitamin K or Lady K it is a legal drug sold as a veterinary sedative or hospital grade anesthetic, when used in humans, the drug acts as a dissociative anesthetic it renders the user vaguely aware of, but detached from all bodily sensations. The pharmaceutical versions of katamine are clear, colorless liquids available in concentrations of ten, fifty, and one hundred milligram solutions. It is the liquid form tha is used as a date rape drug. Liquid ketamine is clear and colorless, and can easily be slipped into a drink without being detected. The liquid form is often baked into a solid form and sold on the street as a fine white powder. This powder can be snorted, smoked, or packed into gel caps and taken orally. The powdered form of katemine is often mistaken for cocaine or crystal methamphetamine. In all forms katamine is usually sold for twenty five to fifty dollars per gram. When taken orally this drug takes ten to twenty minutes to take effect. The most common effect includes hallucinations, cardiac excitement, confusion, violent or aggressive behavior and coma. There are many factors that make these drugs desirable to sexual predators, because they are tasteless, odorless and mainly colorless, these drugs are virtually undetectable. The trace of these drugs usually leaves the body within seventy-two hours from the time it has been taken and they are not found in any routine toxicology screening or blood test. Because of this many physicians and police have to look for these drugs specifically and have to work quickly to find them and get rid of them in a victims system. Another reason why date rape drugs are used in sexual assaults is because they are easily slipped into drinks and are very fast acting. They make the victim become unconscious but responsive with little or no memory of what happened to what is happening while the drug is active in his or her system. These drugs also led the victim to act without knowledge, often in a sexual or physical affectionate way. Like many drugs that are abused, date rape drugs make a person incapable of thinking clearly or making rational decisions. The use of these drugs guarantees a very vulnerable victim, one who is still able to participate in sex acts but who will have little or no knowledge of what happened in the sex act, and also will have no knowledge of what happened after the event. Because of this the victim does not have any clear memory of the event or events that took place or that is taking place during the sexual assault, the victim is also unaware that he or she has even been raped. Even if the person is aware of what is going on or has any suspicions, the victim often make poor witnesses because each of these drugs can cause amnesia while in a victims system. Myths about the Victim One of the most popular myths about rape is that the victim in some way was leading the offender on. Either she was seductive or was dressed in a provocative way or because of this she only got what she asked for. Regardless if this is true or not that if the victim did act seductively or was dressed provocatively, she still has the right to change her mind. There is no law against saying no, but it is against the law not to accept a victims refusal. There has been case study of the offenders that has reveal evidence of pathology and ownership of responsibility for the offense. They have admitted to not being able to have self control, respect for the other person and frustration because of low tolerance. Many people believe that females are the only ones who are victims of rape. But in actuality the victims of rape include males as well as females and they range in age from infancy to old age. The places where assaults have often taken place also have ranged from the victims own hou se to public parks, cemeteries, beaches, shopping malls, public restrooms, churches, and alley ways. There is no place, time of day, or season in which a rape will occur, or is there a specific type of person to whom it is going to happen to. There has also been frequent believes that if a victim really wanted to prevent an assault she could. But the reality still remains that rape occurs through intimidation with a weapon, threat of harm or injury, and in many cases brutal force. Every situation is different in one case of a victim screams, the offender might run away. But another offender might cut her throat. Myths about the offender Just as there are myths about a victim of rape, there are myths about the offender some of those myths are; sexual assault is an impulsive, uncontrollable act of passion. The victim is irresistible to the rapist. But the fact is, rape is an act of violence, not of sexual desire. The majority of rapes that take place are planned, the offender stalks out places, he or she does research on what enticement they will use in the attack or they deliberately get their victim to be involved in a sexual relationship with them. It is the vulnerability of the victim that attracts the sexual predator. There are no limits to offenders victims; they range from infants to the elderly. Anyone can become a victim, regardless of age, sex, physical appearance, marital status, ethnic, religious or socio-economic background can be raped. Another myth is sexual assault occurs only in large cities. The fact is rape have been reported all across the country in large cities and small towns. There is however m ore sexual assaults occur in large cities; this is because larger cities have a greater population. The downside to a victim that lives in a rural area is they dont have access to as many services as a victim in a larger city. Victims that are assaulted in rural areas may be less likely to tell anyone, report it to the police or seek support. Women are sexually assaulted when they are out alone at night. If women stay home they will be safe. The fact is many studies have shown that the majority of sexual assaults are committed in either the victims home or the offenders home, especially in date rape cases. Most rapists hide in dark alleys, waiting for a stranger to walk past. The majority of reported rapes occur either in the victims home or the home of the attacker. In many cases, the victim met the offender in a public place and then was convinced by the attacker to accompanying him or her to the place where the assault will take place. Rape victims know their attacker at least ca sually. In many cases, offenders were well known to the victim and were in relationships that one would normally trust, they were a boyfriend, family friend, close neighbor or relative. Most sexual assaults involve a black man raping a white woman. In ninety three percent of assaults, the rapist and victim are of the same race. In four percent of sexual assault cases, black men did rape white women, while in five percent of the cases, white men raped black women. Most rapists are poor. Rape crosses all class lines. People have been raped by doctors, lawyers, police officers, and other authority figures. Because of their social and financial positions, these offenders are seldom prosecuted for the acts of violence, and their actions are seldom publicized. A victim cant be sexually assaulted against his or her will. Rape is a crime of violence, not sexual passion. In many cases, some type of force is used, such as choking, beating, roughness, or use of a weapon. Often, the victim is t hreatened with death if he or she resists. Confronted with the fear of being beaten or killed, many victims do not attempt to fight an attacker. While a victim may not resist an attack due to socialization and fear of violence, this lack of resistance should not be equated with consent for the attack. Many mugging victims hand over their wallets willingly to maintain their safety, but they did not ask to be mugged. Sexual assault is provoked by the victim. Victims ask for it by their actions, behaviors, or by the way they dress. To say that someone wants to be raped is the same as saying that people ask to be mugged or robbed. In fact, most rapes are at least partially planned in advance and the victim is often threatened with death or bodily harm if he or she resists. Sexual assault is not a spontaneous crime of sexual passion. It is a violent attack on an individual using sex as a weapon. Sex is used to defile, degrade and destroy a victims will and control over his or her own bod y. For the victim, it is a humiliating, near death situation. No person would ask for or deserve such an attack. Only bad girls get sexually assaulted. Sexual assault occurs in all segments of our society. Most rapists choose their targets without regard to physical appearance or lifestyle. Victims are of every type, race, and socio-economic class, young and old alike. Most rapes are reported by women who change their minds afterwards or who want to get even with a man. FBI statistics show that only four percent of rape calls are false reports. This is the same false-report rate that is usual for other kinds of felonies. Women have rape fantasies and secretly desire rape. If you are going to be raped, you might as well relax and enjoy it. When people have sexual fantasies of seduction, they choose the circumstances and characteristics of their seducer. They are in control. In rape, the victim is never in control. There is a big difference between fantasy and reality. Rape is neither relaxing nor enjoyable. Again, victims often submit without struggle due to fear of physical force, or because the assailant is armed with a deadly weapon. Victims responses to rape reflect the violence and intense trauma of the event. Rapists are crazy, deranged, abnormal perverts. They are lonely men without female partnership. Rape is not a crime of spontaneous passion. Studies show that sixty and seventy percent of all sexual assaults are planned. Most rapists are married and having consensual sexual relations while assaulting other women. Rapists themselves do not describe their motivation in terms of sexual gratification, but in terms of hatred and conquest. Sex is used as a weapon to inflict violence, humiliation, and degradation on a victim. Indeed, rapists have said that rape is lousy sex. Sexual offenders come from all educational, occupational, racial and cultural backgrounds. They tend to test differently from the normal, well-adjusted male only in having a greater tend ency to express violence and rage. Men cannot be raped. Sexual assault, no matter the gender of the perpetrator or victim, is a form of violence where sex is used to demean and humiliate another person. Current statistics indicate that one in six men are sexually assaulted or abused in their lifetime. Typically, the perpetrator is a heterosexual male. Sexual assault of males is thought to be greatly underreported.

Behavior :: essays research papers

EDUCATING ETHICAL BEHAVIOR: ARISTOTLE’S VIEWS ON AKRASIA â€Å"Can the teaching of ethics really help cleanse the business world of shady dealings?† Asked by Newsweek magazine during the height of the recent Wall-Street scandals,1 this query resonates with perennial concerns about whether or not virtue can be taught and how such instruction might best be effected. The problem, Newsweek declares, is not that students lack ethical standards or are incapable of distinguishing wrong from right. The challenge for educators rather lies in helping students act on the virtues they espouse. â€Å"Even in today’s complex world, knowing what’s right is comparatively easy,† Newsweek concludes. â€Å"It’s doing what’s right that’s hard.† Why do people act wrongly, when they know full well what right conduct demands? This phenomenon, known to philosophers as incontinence or akrasia, receives extensive treatment in Book Seven of Aristotle’s Nicomachean Ethics.2 Like Newsweek, Aristotle holds that akrasia presents a special challenge for moral education. How does Aristotle conceive this challenge, and what might contemporary educators learn from Aristotle’s analysis? To appreciate Aristotle’s insights into akrasia and moral instruction, it is helpful to begin by looking at popular views of the akratic’s dilemma. Popular beliefs about incontinence are varied and often contradictory, Aristotle contends.3 Two, however, bear scrutiny. Aristotle summarizes them as follows: (1) The continent person seems to be the same as one who abides by his rational calculation; and the incontinent person seems to be the same as one who abandons it. (2) The incontinent person knows that his actions are base, but does them because of his feelings, while the continent person knows that his appetites are base, but because of reason does not follow them.4 In short, popular opinion concludes that with respect to akrasia, feeling overpowers reason; the individual, as a consequence, is seduced into acting irrationally. This conclusion, in turn, is marked by two deeper suppositions: a) feeling (or appetite) is distinct from reason; b) reason can be disciplined, but feelings cannot. Although voiced in ancient Greece, these common beliefs about akrasia are held no less widely today. Like Aristotle’s compatriots, we tend to divorce reason from desires and appetites. The latter we regard as urges we cannot help but feel; reason, by contrast, bespeaks a capacity for considered control. When we act against our better judgment, it is because we cannot hold our feelings at bay. We lose control and behave irrationally.

COBOL, IS IT GOING AWAY? :: essays research papers

  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  On May 28, 1959, the Conference of Data Systems Languages (CODASYL) met for the first time with the idea of developing a universal language for building business applications. That language was COBOL. By 1960, COBOL was commercially ready, and for the next 20 years, more programs were written in COBOL than in any other language. Influenced by FORTRAN, a programming language for the scientific community, and FlowMatic, the group recognized the growing needs of the business community. They thought that if the scientific programmers were going to get a single language, they could do the same for business. In April 1959, at an informal meeting at the University of Pennsylvania in Philadelphia, a small group of computer manufacturers, large users and academics asked the Department of Defense (DOD) to head the efforts (The Creation of COBOL,Brandel). The next month, the DOD called the first meeting of CODASYL, which consisted of eight computer manufacturers and a few l arge users. The DOD broke CODASYL into several committees, and by June, the nine member â€Å"short-range committee† was asked to undertake a six-month investigation into developing the language. DOD made COBOL mandatory for all suppliers of computing hardware and software who were bidding of defense procurements (Encyclopedia of Comp.Sci.,page350). This pressure resulted in persuading other suppliers to adopt COBOL also and thus the programming language took off.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  In addition to machine independence, one of the most important requirements of the language was simplicity. The committee wanted the language to be readable by laypeople, which led to the idea of using English (The Creation of COBOL,Brandel). In addition, computer manufacturers were trying to develop their commercial COBOL compilers while COBOL’s specifications were being defined (Creation of COBOL,Brandel). A complete specification was finished in just six months. That was in December 1959. In 1974, COBOL officially changed to four-digit date fields, but that change obviously didn’t catch on right away. The COBOL creators played a huge part in the famous Y2K problem because of the use of two-digit year fields they used and did not fix in time. This huge problem cost many companies millions and they say that many of these companies will not solve the problem within their own business until even as late as 2008. The Y2K problem effected the world as a whole and showed COBOL’s impact globally. Analyst firm Gartner estimates that applications managing about 85 percent of the world's business data are written in COBOL.